Author: Seifudein Adem.

Japan’s Prime Minister Shinzo Abe and China’s Foreign Minister Wang Yi made overlapping visits to Africa in January 2014. The visits took place, perhaps also not accidentally, on the heels of a steadily deteriorating relationship between the two countries. At times the visits themselves descended into a verbal combat over who has Africa’s best interest at heart. In May 2014, Mr. Li Keqiang, China’s Premier, too, was in Africa. In December 2015, China’s President Xi Jinping arrived in Johannesburg, South Africa, for consultations with Africa’s leaders about Africa’s economic development. Eight months later, in August 2016, Japan’s Prime Minister Abe, too, arrived in Nairobi, Kenya, also for the same reason. In the back - ground, Chinese and Japanese diplomats argued, again, over who has Africa’s interest at heart. In general, Sino-Japanese diplomacy in Africa between 2014 and 2016 was not just less harmonious but it was also characterized by intense hostility. This is not an unfair characteri - zation, especially considering the harsh words exchanged by the diplomats of the two coun - tries during the aforementioned visits. Compared to the years between 2014 and 2016, the signals coming from Sino-Japanese diplomacy in 2017 in Africa were mixed. Both China and Japan toned down their rhetoric towards each other, but, on balance, Japan seemed keener to cooperate with and was more conciliatory toward China than the other way round. But what was it that positively impacted aspects of Sino-Japanese diplomatic behavior in 2017? At least two events seemed to have become profoundly relevant. One was the fact that both Xi Jinping and Shinzo Abe consolidated their power after, respectively, the 19 th Congress of the Chinese Communist Party and the General Election in Japan. Incidentally, both events took place in October. The other factor which possibly led to the relaxation of the bilateral tension between China and Japan – to some extent at least, on the part of Japan – was the ambiguity in the Trump administration’s commitment to the US-Japan alliance. We shall concern ourselves in this paper with Sino-Japanese rivalry as it has been unfolding in Africa. We do so in order to discern the factors which have helped to guide and influence their diplomatic behavior in Africa. But we begin with a brief historical background as to how the two countries responded to the dilemmas of modernization. Then, we take a closer look at developmental states in Japan and China, because, ultimately, Sino-Japanese diplo - macy in Africa will have to involve the question of whose developmental experience is more relevant for Africa’s own development. We will then focus on the comparative history of Sino-Japanese diplomacy in Africa and its contemporary expressions before we proceed to outline some of the elements of divergence and convergence in it. We shall subsequently link up the discussion with how Africa ought to respond under the circumstances to maximize its autonomy and reap optimum benefit from its relationship with the two Asian powers.